@article{sills_renewables_2020,

title = {Renewables in Spain threaten biodiversity},

author = {David Serrano and Antoni Margalida and Juan M. Pérez-García and Javier Juste and Juan Traba and Francisco Valera and Martina Carrete and Joxerra Aihartza and Joan Real and Santi Mañosa and Carles Flaquer and Inazio Garin and Manuel B. Morales and J. Tomás Alcalde and Beatriz Arroyo and José A. Sánchez-Zapata and Guillermo Blanco and Juan J. Negro and José L. Tella and Carlos Ibañez and José L. Tellería and Fernando Hiraldo and José A. Donázar},

editor = {Jennifer Sills},

url = {https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.abf6509},

doi = {10.1126/science.abf6509},

issn = {0036-8075, 1095-9203},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-12-01},

urldate = {2021-01-30},

journal = {Science},

volume = {370},

number = {6522},

pages = {1282--1283},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Traba2021,

title = {Más renovables, pero con cabeza},

author = {Juan Traba and Manuel B. Morales and David Serrano},

url = {https://elpais.com/clima-y-medio-ambiente/2021-01-23/mas-renovables-pero-con-cabeza.html},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-23},

urldate = {2021-01-23},

journal = {El Pais},

abstract = {Una treintena de investigadores pide en esta tribuna una planificación energética estratégica a escala nacional para reducir el impacto de los nuevos proyectos fotovoltaicos y eólicos.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{article,

title = {The potential land requirements and related land use change emissions of solar energy},

author = {Dirk-Jan Ven and Iñigo Capellán-Pérez and Iñaki Arto and Ignacio Cazcarro and Carlos Castro and Pralit Patel and Mikel González-Eguino},

doi = {10.1038/s41598-021-82042-5},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {Scientific Reports},

volume = {11},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{turkovska_land-use_2021,

title = {Land-use impacts of Brazilian wind power expansion},

author = {Olga Turkovska and Gabriel Castro and Michael Klingler and Felix Nitsch and Peter Regner and Aline Cristina Soterroni and Johannes Schmidt},

url = {https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/abd12f},

doi = {10.1088/1748-9326/abd12f},

issn = {1748-9326},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

urldate = {2021-02-14},

journal = {Environmental Research Letters},

volume = {16},

number = {2},

pages = {024010},

abstract = {While wind power is a low-carbon renewable energy technology with relatively small land footprint, the necessary infrastructure expansion still has land-related environmental impacts. Brazil has seen more than a tenfold increase in wind power capacity in the last decade. However, little is known about land-related environmental impacts of wind power generation in Brazil compared to other world regions, although Brazilian wind power infrastructure is concentrated in the least protected ecosystems that are prone to degradation, desertification and species extinction.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{cutanda_nuevos_2021,

title = {Los nuevos proyectos de energías renovables se encuentran con el laberinto jurídico de la evaluación ambiental},

author = {Blanca Lozano Cutanda},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {. ISSN},

number = {110},

pages = {6},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{Traba2021,

title = {Más renovables, pero con cabeza},

author = {Juan Traba and Manuel B. Morales and David Serrano},

url = {https://elpais.com/clima-y-medio-ambiente/2021-01-23/mas-renovables-pero-con-cabeza.html},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-23},

urldate = {2021-01-23},

journal = {El Pais},

abstract = {Una treintena de investigadores pide en esta tribuna una planificación energética estratégica a escala nacional para reducir el impacto de los nuevos proyectos fotovoltaicos y eólicos.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{coppes_consistent_2020,

title = {Consistent effects of wind turbines on habitat selection of capercaillie across Europe},

author = {Joy Coppes and Jim-Lino Kämmerle and Veronika Gruenschachner-Berger and Veronika Braunisch and Kurt Bollmann and Pierre Mollet and Rudi Suchant and Ursula Nopp-Mayr},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {244},

pages = {108529},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{schippers_mortality_2020,

title = {Mortality limits used in wind energy impact assessment underestimate impacts of wind farms on bird populations},

author = {Peter Schippers and Ralph Buij and Alex Schotman and Jana Verboom and Henk van der Jeugd and Eelke Jongejans},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ece3.6360},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6360},

issn = {2045-7758},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Ecology and Evolution},

volume = {10},

number = {13},

pages = {6274--6287},

abstract = {The consequences of bird mortality caused by collisions with wind turbines are increasingly receiving attention. So-called acceptable mortality limits of populations, that is, those that assume that 1%–5% of additional mortality and the potential biological removal (PBR), provide seemingly clear-cut methods for establishing the reduction in population viability. We examine how the application of these commonly used mortality limits could affect populations of the Common Starling, Black-tailed Godwit, Marsh Harrier, Eurasian Spoonbill, White Stork, Common Tern, and White-tailed Eagle using stochastic density-independent and density-dependent Leslie matrix models. Results show that population viability can be very sensitive to proportionally small increases in mortality. Rather than having a negligible effect, we found that a 1% additional mortality in postfledging cohorts of our studied populations resulted in a 2%–24% decrease in the population level after 10 years. Allowing a 5% mortality increase to existing mortality resulted in a 9%–77% reduction in the populations after 10 years. When the PBR method is used in the density-dependent simulations, the proportional change in the resulting growth rate and carrying capacity was species-independent and largely determined by the recovery factor (Fr). When Fr = 1, a value typically used for robust populations, additional mortality resulted in a 50%–55% reduction in the equilibrium density and the resulting growth rate. When Fr = 0.1, used for threatened populations, the reduction in the equilibrium density and growth rate was about 5%. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that by allowing a mortality increase from wind farm collisions according to both criteria, the population impacts of these collisions can still be severe. We propose a simple new method as an alternative that was able to estimate mortality impacts of age-structured stochastic density-dependent matrix models.},

note = {_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ece3.6360},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lundquist_costs_2019,

title = {Costs and consequences of wind turbine wake effects arising from uncoordinated wind energy development},

author = {J. K. Lundquist and K. K. DuVivier and D. Kaffine and J. M. Tomaszewski},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {Nature Energy},

volume = {4},

number = {1},

pages = {26--34},

note = {Publisher: Nature Publishing Group},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{kiesecker_hitting_2019,

title = {Hitting the Target but Missing the Mark: Unintended Environmental Consequences of the Paris Climate Agreement},

author = {Joseph Kiesecker and Sharon Baruch-Mordo and Christina M. Kennedy and James R. Oakleaf and Alessandro Baccini and Bronson W. Griscom},

url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2019.00151/full},

doi = {10.3389/fenvs.2019.00151},

issn = {2296-665X},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Frontiers in Environmental Science},

volume = {7},

abstract = {Meeting climate mitigation and sustainable development goals requires rapid increases in both renewable energy development and carbon storage in ecosystems. If sited with the sole goal of maximizing production, renewable energy may negatively impact biodiversity and carbon storage. Here, we evaluated the potential unintended environmental consequences of this type of business-as-usual development scenario. We spatially allocated land-based, utility-scaled wind and solar energy needed to achieve emission reduction goals from nationally determined contributions under the Paris Climate Agreement. Siting was conducted at 1-km resolution and followed a scenario where on-shore wind, concentrated solar power, and photovoltaic solar renewable energy developments were located where wind and solar resources were highest. Once sited, we evaluated the potential losses of natural lands, Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs), threatened and endangered species, and carbon emissions. Over 11 million ha of natural lands can be lost (textgreater1/4 in KBAs), releasing almost 415 million tons of carbon storage, which equals 8.6% of overall Paris Agreement emission reduction goals. Globally we found that the ranges of 1,574 threatened and endanger species could be impacted, with the highest numbers in the tropical countries of Indonesia (282), Malaysia (273) and Thailand (253). Avoiding land-based emissions through improved renewable energy siting can reduce these losses, potentially saving $47.5-$155.9 billion USD based on social carbon costs. Consideration of these impacts will help reduce investor risk to facilitate a timely transition to a low-carbon economy.},

note = {Publisher: Frontiers},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{bernardino_bird_2018,

title = {Bird collisions with power lines: State of the art and priority areas for research},

author = {J. Bernardino and K. Bevanger and R. Barrientos and J. F. Dwyer and A. T. Marques and R. C. Martins and J. M. Shaw and J. P. Silva and F. Moreira},

url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320717317925},

doi = {10.1016/j.biocon.2018.02.029},

issn = {0006-3207},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-06-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {222},

pages = {1--13},

abstract = {Transmission and distribution electricity grids are expanding rapidly worldwide, with significant negative impacts on biodiversity and, in particular, on birds. We performed a systematic review of the literature available on bird collisions with power lines to: (i) assess overall trends in scientific research in recent decades; (ii) review the existing knowledge of species-specific factors (e.g. vision, morphology), site-specific factors (e.g. topography, light and weather conditions, and anthropogenic disturbance), and power line-specific factors (e.g. number of wire levels, wire height and diameter) known to contribute to increased bird collision risk; and (iii) evaluate existing mitigation measures (e.g. power line routing, underground cabling, power line configuration, wire marking), as well as their effectiveness in reducing collision risk. Our literature review showed (i) there is comparatively little scientific evidence available for power line-specific factors, (ii) there is a scarcity of studies in Asia, Africa and South America, and (iii) several recommendations of good practice are still not supported by scientific evidence. Based on knowledge gaps identified through this review, we outline suggestions for future research and possible innovative approaches in three main areas: bird behaviour (e.g. further use of loggers and sensors), impact assessment (e.g. understanding the drivers of mortality hotspots, assess population-level impacts, develop methods for automatic detection of collisions) and mitigation measures (e.g. further need of BACI approaches to compare the effectiveness of different wire marking devices). The complex and region-specific interactions between collision drivers and bird ecology continue to limit our ability to predict impacts and the success of mitigation measures.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{parker_impact_2018,

title = {Impact of solar and wind development on conservation values in the Mojave Desert},

author = {Sophie S. Parker and Brian S. Cohen and James Moore},

url = {https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0207678},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0207678},

issn = {1932-6203},

year  = {2018},

date = {2018-12-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {PLOS ONE},

volume = {13},

number = {12},

pages = {e0207678},

abstract = {In 2010, The Nature Conservancy completed the Mojave Desert Ecoregional Assessment, which characterizes conservation values across nearly 130,000 km2 of the desert Southwest. Since this assessment was completed, several renewable energy facilities have been built in the Mojave Desert, thereby changing the conservation value of these lands. We have completed a new analysis of land use to reassess the conservation value of lands in two locations in the Mojave Desert where renewable energy development has been most intense: Ivanpah Valley, and the Western Mojave. We found that 99 of our 2.59-km2 planning units were impacted by development such that they would now be categorized as having lower conservation value, and most of these downgrades in conservation value were due to solar and wind development. Solar development alone was responsible for a direct development footprint 86.79 km2: 25.81 km2 of this was primarily high conservation value Bureau of Land Management lands in the Ivanpah Valley, and 60.99 km2 was privately owned lands, mostly of lower conservation value, in the Western Mojave. Our analyses allow us to understand patterns in renewable energy development in the mostly rapidly changing regions of the Mojave Desert. Our analyses also provide a baseline that will allow us to assess the effectiveness of the Desert Renewable Energy Conservation Plan in preventing development on lands of high conservation value over the coming decades.},

note = {Publisher: Public Library of Science},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{thaxter_bird_2017,

title = {Bird and bat species' global vulnerability to collision mortality at wind farms revealed through a trait-based assessment},

author = {Chris B. Thaxter and Graeme M. Buchanan and Jamie Carr and Stuart H. M. Butchart and Tim Newbold and Rhys E. Green and Joseph A. Tobias and Wendy B. Foden and Sue O'Brien and James W. Pearce-Higgins},

url = {https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2017.0829},

doi = {10.1098/rspb.2017.0829},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-09-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences},

volume = {284},

number = {1862},

pages = {20170829},

abstract = {Mitigation of anthropogenic climate change involves deployments of renewable energy worldwide, including wind farms, which can pose a significant collision risk to volant animals. Most studies into the collision risk between species and wind turbines, however, have taken place in industrialized countries. Potential effects for many locations and species therefore remain unclear. To redress this gap, we conducted a systematic literature review of recorded collisions between birds and bats and wind turbines within developed countries. We related collision rate to species-level traits and turbine characteristics to quantify the potential vulnerability of 9538 bird and 888 bat species globally. Avian collision rate was affected by migratory strategy, dispersal distance and habitat associations, and bat collision rates were influenced by dispersal distance. For birds and bats, larger turbine capacity (megawatts) increased collision rates; however, deploying a smaller number of large turbines with greater energy output reduced total collision risk per unit energy output, although bat mortality increased again with the largest turbines. Areas with high concentrations of vulnerable species were also identified, including migration corridors. Our results can therefore guide wind farm design and location to reduce the risk of large-scale animal mortality. This is the first quantitative global assessment of the relative collision vulnerability of species groups with wind turbines, providing valuable guidance for minimizing potentially serious negative impacts on biodiversity.},

note = {Publisher: Royal Society},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lopucki_terrestrial_2017,

title = {Do terrestrial animals avoid areas close to turbines in functioning wind farms in agricultural landscapes?},

author = {Rafa? ?opucki and Daniel Klich and Sylwia Gielarek},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-017-6018-z},

doi = {10.1007/s10661-017-6018-z},

issn = {1573-2959},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-06-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Environmental Monitoring and Assessment},

volume = {189},

number = {7},

pages = {343},

abstract = {Most studies on the effects of wind energy on animals have focused on avian and bat activity, habitat use, and mortality, whereas very few have been published on terrestrial, non-volant wildlife. In this paper, we studied the utilization of functioning wind farm areas by four terrestrial animals common to agricultural landscapes: European roe deer, European hare, red fox, and the common pheasant. Firstly, we expected that the studied animals do not avoid areas close to turbines and utilize the whole area of functioning wind farms with a frequency similar to the control areas. Secondly, we expected that there is no relation between the turbine proximity and the number of tracks of these animals. The study was conducted over two winter seasons using the snow-tracking method along 100 m linear transects. In total, 583 transects were recorded. Wind farm operations may affect terrestrial animals both in wind farm interiors and in a 700-m buffer zone around the edge of turbines. The reactions of animals were species specific. Herbivorous mammals (roe deer and European hare) avoided wind farm interiors and proximity to turbines. The common pheasant showed a positive reaction to wind turbine proximity. The red fox had the most neutral response to wind turbines. Although this species visited wind farm interiors less often than the control area, there was no relation between fox track density and turbine proximity. Greater weight should be given to the effects of wind farms on non-flying wildlife than at present. Investors and regulatory authorities should always consider the likely impacts of wind farms during environmental impact assessments and try to reduce these negative effects.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{frick_fatalities_2017,

title = {Fatalities at wind turbines may threaten population viability of a migratory bat},

author = {W. F. Frick and E. F. Baerwald and J. F. Pollock and R. M. R. Barclay and J. A. Szymanski and T. J. Weller and A. L. Russell and S. C. Loeb and R. A. Medellin and L. P. McGuire},

url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716310485},

doi = {10.1016/j.biocon.2017.02.023},

issn = {0006-3207},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-05-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {209},

pages = {172--177},

abstract = {Large numbers of migratory bats are killed every year at wind energy facilities. However, population-level impacts are unknown as we lack basic demographic information about these species. We investigated whether fatalities at wind turbines could impact population viability of migratory bats, focusing on the hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus), the species most frequently killed by turbines in North America. Using expert elicitation and population projection models, we show that mortality from wind turbines may drastically reduce population size and increase the risk of extinction. For example, the hoary bat population could decline by as much as 90% in the next 50years if the initial population size is near 2.5 million bats and annual population growth rate is similar to rates estimated for other bat species (?=1.01). Our results suggest that wind energy development may pose a substantial threat to migratory bats in North America. If viable populations are to be sustained, conservation measures to reduce mortality from turbine collisions likely need to be initiated soon. Our findings inform policy decisions regarding preventing or mitigating impacts of energy infrastructure development on wildlife.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{foo_increasing_2017,

title = {Increasing evidence that bats actively forage at wind turbines},

author = {Cecily F. Foo and Victoria J. Bennett and Amanda M. Hale and Jennifer M. Korstian and Alison J. Schildt and Dean A. Williams},

url = {https://peerj.com/articles/3985},

doi = {10.7717/peerj.3985},

issn = {2167-8359},

year  = {2017},

date = {2017-11-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {PeerJ},

volume = {5},

pages = {e3985},

abstract = {Although the ultimate causes of high bat fatalities at wind farms are not well understood, several lines of evidence suggest that bats are attracted to wind turbines. One hypothesis is that bats would be attracted to turbines as a foraging resource if the insects that bats prey upon are commonly present on and around the turbine towers. To investigate the role that foraging activity may play in bat fatalities, we conducted a series of surveys at a wind farm in the southern Great Plains of the US from 2011–2016. From acoustic monitoring we recorded foraging activity, including feeding buzzes indicative of prey capture, in the immediate vicinity of turbine towers from all six bat species known to be present at this site. From insect surveys we found Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Orthoptera in consistently high proportions over several years suggesting that food resources for bats were consistently available at wind turbines. We used DNA barcoding techniques to assess bat diet composition of (1) stomach contents from 47 eastern red bat (Lasiurus borealis) and 24 hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus) carcasses collected in fatality searches, and (2) fecal pellets from 23 eastern red bats that were found on turbine towers, transformers, and tower doors. We found that the majority of the eastern red bat and hoary bat stomachs, the two bat species most commonly found in fatality searches at this site, were full or partially full, indicating that the bats were likely killed while foraging. Although Lepidoptera and Orthoptera dominated the diets of these two bat species, both consumed a range of prey items with individual bats having from one to six insect species in their stomachs at the time of death. The prey items identified from eastern red bat fecal pellets showed similar results. A comparison of the turbine insect community to the diet analysis results revealed that the most abundant insects at wind turbines, including terrestrial insects such as crickets and several important crop pests, were also commonly eaten by eastern red and hoary bats. Collectively, these findings suggest that bats are actively foraging around wind turbines and that measures to minimize bat fatalities should be broadly implemented at wind facilities.},

note = {Publisher: PeerJ Inc.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lopucki_assessment_2016,

title = {An assessment of non-volant terrestrial vertebrates response to wind farms—a study of small mammals},

author = {Rafa? ?opucki and Iwona Mróz},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5095-8},

doi = {10.1007/s10661-016-5095-8},

issn = {1573-2959},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Environmental Monitoring and Assessment},

volume = {188},

number = {2},

pages = {122},

abstract = {The majority of studies on the effects of wind energy development on wildlife have been focused on birds and bats, whereas knowledge of the response of terrestrial, non-flying vertebrates is very scarce. In this paper, the impact of three functioning wind farms on terrestrial small mammal communities (rodents and shrews) and the population parameters of the most abundant species were studied. The study was carried out in southeastern Poland within the foothills of the Outer Western Carpathians. Small mammals were captured at 12 sites around wind turbines and at 12 control sites. In total, from 1200 trap-days, 885 individuals of 14 studied mammal species were captured. There was no difference in the characteristics of communities of small mammals near wind turbines and within control sites; i.e. these types of sites were inhabited by a similar number of species of similar abundance, similar species composition, species diversity (H? index) and species evenness (J?) (Pielou’s index). For the two species with the highest proportion in the communities (Apodemus agrarius and Microtus arvalis), the parameters of their populations (mean body mass, sex ratio, the proportion of adult individuals and the proportion of reproductive female) were analysed. In both species, none of the analysed parameters differed significantly between sites in the vicinity of turbines and control sites. For future studies on the impact of wind turbines on small terrestrial mammals in different geographical areas and different species communities, we recommend the method of paired ‘turbine-control sites’ as appropriate for animal species with pronounced fluctuations in population numbers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{arnett_mitigating_2016,

title = {Mitigating Wind Energy Impacts on Wildlife: Approaches for Multiple Taxa},

author = {Edward Arnett and Roel May},

url = {https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/hwi/vol10/iss1/5},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.26077/1jeg-7r13},

issn = {2155-3874},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-01-01},

journal = {Human–Wildlife Interactions},

volume = {10},

number = {1},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gartman_mitigation_2016,

title = {Mitigation Measures for Wildlife in Wind Energy Development, Consolidating the State of Knowledge — Part 1: Planning and Siting, Construction},

author = {Victoria Gartman and Lea Bulling and Marie Dahmen and Gesa Geißler and Johann Köppel},

url = {https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S1464333216500137},

doi = {10.1142/S1464333216500137},

issn = {1464-3332},

year  = {2016},

date = {2016-08-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management},

volume = {18},

number = {03},

pages = {1650013},

abstract = {During this rapid development of wind energy aiming to combat climate change worldwide, there is greater need to avoid, reduce, and compensate for impacts on wildlife: Through the effective use of mitigation, wind energy can continue to expand while reducing impacts. This is a first broad step into discussing and understanding mitigation strategies collectively, identifying the current state of knowledge and be a beneficial resource for practitioners and conservationists. We review the current state of published knowledge, both land-based and offshore, with a focus on wind energy–wildlife mitigation measures. We state measures and highlight their objective and discuss at which project stage it is most effective (e.g. planning, construction, and operation). Thereafter, we discuss key findings within current wind energy mitigation research, needing improved understanding into the efficacy of wildlife mitigation as well as research into the cost aspects of mitigation implementation. This paper is divided into two articles; Part 1 focuses on mitigation measures during planning, siting, and construction, while Part 2 focuses on measures during operation and decommissioning.},

note = {Publisher: Imperial College Press},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{new_collision_2015,

title = {A collision risk model to predict avian fatalities at wind facilities: an example using golden eagles, Aquila chrysaetos},

author = {Leslie New and Emily Bjerre and Brian Millsap and Mark C. Otto and Michael C. Runge},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

journal = {PloS one},

volume = {10},

number = {7},

pages = {e0130978},

note = {Publisher: Public Library of Science San Francisco, CA USA},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{latinopoulos_gis-based_2015,

title = {A GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation for wind farm site selection. A regional scale application in Greece},

author = {D. Latinopoulos and K. Kechagia},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960148115000592},

doi = {10.1016/j.renene.2015.01.041},

issn = {09601481},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-06-01},

urldate = {2021-10-28},

journal = {Renewable Energy},

volume = {78},

pages = {550--560},

abstract = {The present paper proposes and implements an integrated evaluation framework for selecting the most appropriate sites for wind-farm development projects. This framework focuses on the combined use of geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial multi-criteria decision analysis, aiming to provide a decision tool for wind-farm planning at the regional level. This procedure has been developed by means of various technological, economic, social, and environmental criteria (known as siting criteria), which were used either as constraints and/or as evaluation factors in order to identify ?rst the potential/ appropriate sites for wind farm installation and then to evaluate these sites using a composite Suitability Index (SI). The proposed decision tool is thus able to get the optimal locations for future projects, as well as the suitability score of the already licensed projects. The results of this paper support the potential role of planners in designating areas for wind farm development.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{sanz-aguilar_action_2015,

title = {Action on multiple fronts, illegal poisoning and wind farm planning, is required to reverse the decline of the Egyptian vulture in southern Spain},

author = {Ana Sanz-Aguilar and José Antonio Sánchez-Zapata and Martina Carrete and José Ramón Benítez and Enrique Ávila and Rafael Arenas and José Antonio Donázar},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320715001408},

doi = {10.1016/j.biocon.2015.03.029},

issn = {00063207},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-07-01},

urldate = {2021-01-30},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {187},

pages = {10--18},

abstract = {Large body-sized avian scavengers, including the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), are globally threatened due to human-related mortality so guidelines quantifying the ef?cacy of different management approaches are urgently needed. We used 14 years of territory and individual-based data on a small and geographically isolated Spanish population to estimate survival, recruitment and breeding success. We then forecasted their population viability under current vital rates and under management scenarios that mitigated the main sources of non-natural mortality at breeding grounds (fatalities from wind farms and illegal poisoning). Mean breeding success was 0.68 (SD = 0.17) under current conditions. Annual probabilities of survival were 0.72 (SE = 0.06) for ?edglings and 2 yr old non-breeders, 0.73 (SE = 0.04) for non-breeders older than 2 yrs old and 0.93 (SE = 0.04) for breeders. Probabilities of recruitment were 0 for birds aged 1–4, 0.10 (SE = 0.06) for birds aged 5 and 0.19 (SE = 0.09) for older birds. Population viability analyses estimated an annual decline of 3–4% of the breeding population under current conditions. Our results indicate that only by combining different management actions in the breeding area, especially by removing the most important causes of human-related mortality (poisoning and collisions on wind farms), will the population grow and persist in the long term. Reinforcement with captive breeding may also have positive effects but only in combination with the reduction in causes of non-natural mortality. These results, although obtained for a focal species, may be applicable to other endangered populations of long-lived avian scavengers inhabiting southern Europe.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{millon_bat_2015,

title = {Bat activity in intensively farmed landscapes with wind turbines and offset measures},

author = {Lara Millon and Jean-François Julien and Romain Julliard and Christian Kerbiriou},

url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925857414006466},

doi = {10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.11.050},

issn = {0925-8574},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-02-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Ecological Engineering},

volume = {75},

pages = {250--257},

abstract = {Compensation measures are needed to counteract some of the negative impacts of wind energy facilities on bat populations. To advise developers, we studied farming landscapes and compared bat activity at impacted sites (crops with wind turbines), sites without compensation measures (crops) and a set of sites with potential compensation measures: fallows, hedgerows, bushes, grass strips, and grass strips with bushes. Each site type was sampled twice in 2013, once during the reproductive period and once during the migratory period. Each sample consisted of at least eight nights of ultra-sound recordings. Bat species were separated into three groups: Pipistrellus sp., Eptesicus-Nyctalus sp. and Plecotus-Myotis sp. The results demonstrated that the three groups responded differently to the different potential compensation measures and that responses were season-dependent. These results lead to further questions regarding strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of wind farms.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{schuster_consolidating_2015,

title = {Consolidating the State of Knowledge: A Synoptical Review of Wind Energy’s Wildlife Effects},

author = {Eva Schuster and Lea Bulling and Johann Köppel},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00267-015-0501-5},

doi = {10.1007/s00267-015-0501-5},

issn = {0364-152X, 1432-1009},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-08-01},

urldate = {2021-03-27},

journal = {Environmental Management},

volume = {56},

number = {2},

pages = {300--331},

abstract = {Wind energy development contributes substantially to achieve climate protection goals. Unintended side effects, especially on wildlife, have long been discussed and substantial research has evolved over the last decade. At this stage, it is important to identify what we have learnt so far, as well as which predominant uncertainties and gaps remain. This review article aims to consolidate the state of knowledge, providing a qualitative analysis of the main effects of wind energy development on- and offshore, focusing on frequently studied species groups (bats, breeding and resting birds, raptors, migratory birds, marine mammals). We reviewed over 220 publications from which we identi?ed predominant hypotheses that were summarized and displayed in tables. Journal publications, conference contributions, and further studies have been considered. We found that research focusing on offshore wind energy within the last couple of years has increased signi?cantly as well, catching up with the vast amount of onshore studies. Some hypotheses have been veri?ed by numerous publications and a consensus has been reached (e.g., correlation between bat activity and weather factors), while others are still being debated more (e.g., determination of migratory corridors) or remain unknown (e.g., effect on population level). Factors in?uencing potential effects were mainly related to species characteristics (morphology, phenology, abundance, behavior, and response to turbines) or site characteristics (landscape features, weather, and habitat quality).},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{hernandez-pliego_effects_2015,

title = {Effects of wind farms on Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) in southern Spain},

author = {Jesús Hernández-Pliego and Manuela Lucas and Antonio-Román Muñoz and Miguel Ferrer},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-01-01},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {191},

pages = {452--458},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{dai_environmental_2015,

title = {Environmental issues associated with wind energy – A review},

author = {Kaoshan Dai and Anthony Bergot and Chao Liang and Wei-Ning Xiang and Zhenhua Huang},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960148114007149},

doi = {10.1016/j.renene.2014.10.074},

issn = {09601481},

year  = {2015},

date = {2015-03-01},

urldate = {2021-03-27},

journal = {Renewable Energy},

volume = {75},

pages = {911--921},

abstract = {Recognized as one of the most mature renewable energy technologies, wind energy has been developing rapidly in recent years. Many countries have shown interest in utilizing wind power, but they are concerned about the environmental impacts of the wind farms. The continuous growth of the wind energy industry in many parts of the world, especially in some developing countries and ecologically vulnerable regions, necessitates a comprehensive understanding of wind farm induced environmental impacts. The environmental issues caused by wind farms were reviewed in this paper by summarizing existing studies. Available mitigation measures to minimize these adverse environmental impacts were discussed in this document. The intention of this paper is to provide state-of-the-art knowledge about environmental issues associated with wind energy development as well as strategies to mitigate environmental impacts to wind energy planners and developers.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{cryan_behavior_2014,

title = {Behavior of bats at wind turbines},

author = {Paul M. Cryan and P. Marcos Gorresen and Cris D. Hein and Michael R. Schirmacher and Robert H. Diehl and Manuela M. Huso and David T. S. Hayman and Paul D. Fricker and Frank J. Bonaccorso and Douglas H. Johnson and Kevin Heist and David C. Dalton},

url = {https://www.pnas.org/content/111/42/15126},

doi = {10.1073/pnas.1406672111},

issn = {0027-8424, 1091-6490},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-10-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},

volume = {111},

number = {42},

pages = {15126--15131},

abstract = {Wind turbines are causing unprecedented numbers of bat fatalities. Many fatalities involve tree-roosting bats, but reasons for this higher susceptibility remain unknown. To better understand behaviors associated with risk, we monitored bats at three experimentally manipulated wind turbines in Indiana, United States, from July 29 to October 1, 2012, using thermal cameras and other methods. We observed bats on 993 occasions and saw many behaviors, including close approaches, flight loops and dives, hovering, and chases. Most bats altered course toward turbines during observation. Based on these new observations, we tested the hypotheses that wind speed and blade rotation speed influenced the way that bats interacted with turbines. We found that bats were detected more frequently at lower wind speeds and typically approached turbines on the leeward (downwind) side. The proportion of leeward approaches increased with wind speed when blades were prevented from turning, yet decreased when blades could turn. Bats were observed more frequently at turbines on moonlit nights. Taken together, these observations suggest that bats may orient toward turbines by sensing air currents and using vision, and that air turbulence caused by fast-moving blades creates conditions that are less attractive to bats passing in close proximity. Tree bats may respond to streams of air flowing downwind from trees at night while searching for roosts, conspecifics, and nocturnal insect prey that could accumulate in such flows. Fatalities of tree bats at turbines may be the consequence of behaviors that evolved to provide selective advantages when elicited by tall trees, but are now maladaptive when elicited by wind turbines.},

note = {Publisher: National Academy of Sciences 

Section: Biological Sciences},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{vaissiere_biodiversity_2014,

title = {Biodiversity offsets for offshore wind farm projects: The current situation in Europe},

author = {Anne-Charlotte Vaissière and Harold Levrel and Sylvain Pioch and Antoine Carlier},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

journal = {Marine Policy},

volume = {48},

pages = {172--183},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{jaber_environmental_2014,

title = {Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy},

author = {Suaad Jaber},

url = {http://www.jocet.org/show-24-323-1.html},

doi = {10.7763/JOCET.2013.V1.57},

issn = {1793821X},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-24},

journal = {Journal of Clean Energy Technologies},

pages = {251--254},

abstract = {Man has harnessed the energy in wind for thousands of years, both for sailing boats and powering wind mills at land. Of all renewable energy sources, wind power is the most mature in terms of commercial development. This energy source is interesting because of its renewability and its availability. Potential for development is huge, and the world’s capacity is far larger than the world’s total energy consumption. Worldwide, a total capacity of about 60 000 MW have been installed, with a yearly production of about 100 TWh. The major challenges for further development are connected to economy, land usage, environment and grid capacity. The growth of renewable energy has been unprecedented over the past 25 years. Wind and solar have maintained double-digit growth rates since 2000. No other segment of the energy sector has grown this fast. Wind power is the most economic new power plant technology, due to reduced installations costs, no fuel costs and construction time of less than one year, compared to over 10 years to construct nuclear power plants. The effects of wind energy on the environment often are considered to be positive, through the production of renewable energy and the potential displacement of mining activities, air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with non-renewable energy sources. As a result, a more complete understanding of the environmental and economic effects of any one energy source depends on a more complete understanding of how that energy source displaces or is displaced by other energy sources, and it depends on a more complete understanding of the environmental and economic effects of all other available energy sources. This paper provides analyses to understand those environmental effects, both positive and negative.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{sanchez_sustainability_2014,

title = {On the sustainability of wind energy regarding material usage},

author = {Rosa GARCÍA Sánchez and Alexandra Pehlken and Marco Lewandowski},

year  = {2014},

date = {2014-01-01},

pages = {8},

abstract = {Material sustainability and efficiency in the different phases of the product life-cycle are relevant and necessary perspectives for improving the environmental and economic sustainability of products. Renewable energies need to be sustainable in all the aspects, particularly wind energy which gained the most renewable power capacity around the world in 2011. Sustainable production, maintenance and disposal of wind turbines support sustainability of the energy source. This paper identifies raw materials, auxiliary materials and operating supplies along the life-cycle of wind turbines. Furthermore, an overview of material requirements and potential improvement areas for sustainable material usage is developed and discussed.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lovich_assessing_2013,

title = {Assessing the state of knowledge of utility-scale wind energy development and operation on non-volant terrestrial and marine wildlife},

author = {Jeffrey E. Lovich and Joshua R. Ennen},

url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261912007052},

doi = {10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.10.001},

issn = {0306-2619},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-03-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Applied Energy},

volume = {103},

pages = {52--60},

abstract = {A great deal has been published in the scientific literature regarding the effects of wind energy development and operation on volant (flying) wildlife including birds and bats, although knowledge of how to mitigate negative impacts is still imperfect. We reviewed the peer-reviewed scientific literature for information on the known and potential effects of utility-scale wind energy development and operation (USWEDO) on terrestrial and marine non-volant wildlife and found that very little has been published on the topic. Following a similar review for solar energy we identified known and potential effects due to construction and eventual decommissioning of wind energy facilities. Many of the effects are similar and include direct mortality, environmental impacts of destruction and modification of habitat including impacts of roads, and offsite impacts related to construction material acquisition, processing and transportation. Known and potential effects due to operation and maintenance of facilities include habitat fragmentation and barriers to gene flow, as well as effects due to noise, vibration and shadow flicker, electromagnetic field generation, macro- and micro-climate change, predator attraction, and increased fire risk. The scarcity of before-after-control-impact studies hinders the ability to rigorously quantify the effects of USWEDO on non-volant wildlife. We conclude that more empirical data are currently needed to fully assess the impact of USWEDO on non-volant wildlife.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{zimmerling_canadian_2013,

title = {Canadian Estimate of Bird Mortality Due to Collisions and Direct Habitat Loss Associated with Wind Turbine Developments},

author = {J. Zimmerling and Andrea Pomeroy and Marc dÉntremont and Charles Francis},

url = {http://www.ace-eco.org/vol8/iss2/art10/},

issn = {1712-6568},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-09-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Avian Conservation and Ecology},

volume = {8},

number = {2},

abstract = {Zimmerling, J. R., A. C. Pomeroy, M. V. dÉntremont, and C. M. Francis. 2013. Canadian estimate of bird mortality due to collisions and direct habitat loss associated with wind turbine developments. Avian Conservation and Ecology 8(2): 10.http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00609-080210},

note = {Publisher: The Resilience Alliance},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{northrup_characterising_2013,

title = {Characterising the impacts of emerging energy development on wildlife, with an eye towards mitigation},

author = {Joseph M. Northrup and George Wittemyer},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ele.12009},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12009},

issn = {1461-0248},

year  = {2013},

date = {2013-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Ecology Letters},

volume = {16},

number = {1},

pages = {112--125},

abstract = {Global demand for energy is projected to increase by 40% in the next 20 years, and largely will be met with alternative and unconventional sources. Development of these resources causes novel disturbances that strongly impact terrestrial ecosystems and wildlife. To effectively position ecologists to address this prevalent conservation challenge, we reviewed the literature on the ecological ramifications of this dominant driver of global land-use change, consolidated results for its mitigation and highlighted knowledge gaps. Impacts varied widely, underscoring the importance of area and species-specific studies. The most commonly reported impacts included behavioural responses and direct mortality. Examinations of mitigation were limited, but common easements included (1) reduction of the development footprint and human activity, (2) maintenance of undeveloped, ‘refuge’ habitat and (3) alteration of activity during sensitive periods. Problematically, the literature was primarily retrospective, focused on few species, countries, and ecoregions, and fraught with generalisations from weak inference. We advocate future studies take a comprehensive approach incorporating a mechanistic understanding of the interplay between development-caused impacts and species ecology that will enable effective mitigation. Key areas for future research vital to securing a sustainable energy future in the face of development-related global change are outlined.},

note = {_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ele.12009},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{martinezabrain_effects_2012,

title = {Effects of wind farms and food scarcity on a large scavenging bird species following an epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy},

author = {Alejandro Martínez?Abraín and Giacomo Tavecchia and Helen M. Regan and Juan Jiménez and Martín Surroca and Daniel Oro},

url = {https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02080.x},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02080.x},

issn = {1365-2664},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Journal of Applied Ecology},

volume = {49},

number = {1},

pages = {109--117},

abstract = {1. Wind farms are emerging as a major cause of mortality of large scavenging bird species, which may be catastrophic when they operate in concert with other threats. As a study model, we examine the impact of wind turbines on the population dynamics of a soaring bird species, when acting in conjunction with a sudden decrease in food availability following the European bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic. 2. In Spain, vultures have been provided with supplementary food at traditional vulture restaurants for centuries. In 2006/2007, these feeding stations were closed as part of disease control measures. At the same time, wind farms were deployed within the vulture foraging range. We used capture–recapture data and direct observation to monitor the impacts of these changes on the vulture population. 3. The number of breeding pairs decreased by c. 24%, adult survival by 30% and fecundity by 35%. However, the population recovered as soon as the perturbations ceased, the vulture restaurants were reopened, and the most problematic wind turbines were closed. Population recovery was faster than predicted by a retrospective stochastic population model. 4. Our analyses indicate that fecundity and survival were influenced predominantly by wind turbines. Food scarcity promoted a shift in foraging behaviour that drove vultures to fly into the path of wind turbines as they sought out new food sources in a landfill site. Elasticity and sensitivity analyses of the population model showed that mortality of adult birds had a much greater effect on population declines than mortality of immature birds, whereas reduction in fecundity had negligible effects. 5. The most likely explanation for the rapid recovery of the vulture population is that the observed decline in breeding pairs was not solely because of increased mortality. The decline probably included dispersal away from the area and a greater incidence of skipped breeding during the perturbation years. Subsequent immigration from large nearby populations was probably a factor in population recovery. 6. Synthesis and applications. Where specific wind turbines are causing substantial mortality, their closure is an effective management response. For vulture populations dependent on supplemental feeding stations, the feeding sites should be relocated away from the most problematic wind turbines, or other anthropogenic sources of mortality, to prevent negative impacts. We recommend the establishment of scattered, low-value food sources to replicate historical conditions and to avoid the problems associated with high concentrations of individuals in one place.},

note = {_eprint: https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.02080.x},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{minderman_experimental_2012,

title = {Experimental Evidence for the Effect of Small Wind Turbine Proximity and Operation on Bird and Bat Activity},

author = {Jeroen Minderman and Chris J. Pendlebury and James W. Pearce-Higgins and Kirsty J. Park},

url = {https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0041177},

doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0041177},

issn = {1932-6203},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-07-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {PLOS ONE},

volume = {7},

number = {7},

pages = {e41177},

abstract = {The development of renewable energy technologies such as wind turbines forms a vital part of strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Although large wind farms generate the majority of wind energy, the small wind turbine (SWT, units generating textless50 kW) sector is growing rapidly. In spite of evidence of effects of large wind farms on birds and bats, effects of SWTs on wildlife have not been studied and are likely to be different due to their potential siting in a wider range of habitats. We present the first study to quantify the effects of SWTs on birds and bats. Using a field experiment, we show that bird activity is similar in two distance bands surrounding a sample of SWTs (between 6–18 m hub height) and is not affected by SWT operation at the fine scale studied. At shorter distances from operating turbines (0–5 m), bat activity (measured as the probability of a bat “pass” per hour) decreases from 84% (71–91%) to 28% (11–54%) as wind speed increases from 0 to 14 m/s. This effect is weaker at greater distances (20–25 m) from operating turbines (activity decreases from 80% (65–89%) to 59% (32–81%)), and absent when they are braked. We conclude that bats avoid operating SWTs but that this effect diminishes within 20 m. Such displacement effects may have important consequences especially in landscapes where suitable habitat is limiting. Planning guidance for SWTs is currently lacking. Based on our results we recommend that they are sited at least 20 m away from potentially valuable bat habitat.},

note = {Publisher: Public Library of Science},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{pearcehiggins_greater_2012,

title = {Greater impacts of wind farms on bird populations during construction than subsequent operation: results of a multi-site and multi-species analysis},

author = {James W. Pearce?Higgins and Leigh Stephen and Andy Douse and Rowena H. W. Langston},

url = {https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02110.x},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02110.x},

issn = {1365-2664},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Journal of Applied Ecology},

volume = {49},

number = {2},

pages = {386--394},

abstract = {1. There has been a rapid increase in the development of renewable energy because of the need to combat climate change. One of the most widely used technologies has been onshore wind farms. These have the potential to affect birds through disturbance or collision, but the extent to which such developments cause general population declines, and therefore are of wider conservation concern, remains largely untested. 2. Monitoring data from wind farms located on unenclosed upland habitats in the UK were collated to test whether breeding densities of upland birds were reduced as a result of wind farm construction or during wind farm operation. 3. Data were available for ten species although none were raptors. Red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, snipe Gallinago gallinago and curlew Numenius arquata densities all declined on wind farms during construction. Red grouse densities recovered after construction, but snipe and curlew densities did not. Post-construction curlew densities on wind farms were also significantly lower than reference sites. Conversely, densities of skylark Alauda arvensis and stonechat Saxicola torquata increased on wind farms during construction. 4. There was little evidence for consistent post-construction population declines in any species, suggesting for the first time that wind farm construction can have greater impacts upon birds than wind farm operation. 5. The impacts of wind farms were largely unaffected by technical specifications (turbine height, number or total generating power) and therefore are widely applicable. 6. Synthesis and applications. This study confirms that regulatory authorities and developers should particularly consider the likely impacts of wind farms on large waders. Greater weight should be given to the effects of construction on wildlife in impact assessments than at present. Mitigation measures during construction, including restricting construction activity to non-breeding periods, should be considered and tested as a means to reduce these negative effects.},

note = {_eprint: https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2012.02110.x},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{de_lucas_griffon_2012,

title = {Griffon vulture mortality at wind farms in southern Spain: Distribution of fatalities and active mitigation measures},

author = {Manuela De Lucas and Miguel Ferrer and Marc J. Bechard and Antonio R. Muñoz},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

journal = {Biological Conservation},

volume = {147},

number = {1},

pages = {184--189},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{rees_impacts_2012,

title = {Impacts of wind farms on swans and geese: a review},

author = {Eileen C Rees},

year  = {2012},

date = {2012-01-01},

pages = {36},

abstract = {This review considers data published on the effects of offshore and onshore windfarms on swans and geese and finds that the information available is patchy. Of 72 swans or geese reported as collision victims at 46 wind farms, most (39 birds) were reported at 23 wind farms in Germany where such data are collated. Post-construction monitoring was undertaken for ? 1 year at 67% of 33 sites, making it difficult to test for cumulative effects or annual variation in collision rates. Site use by the birds was measured at only nine of 46 wind farms where collisions by swans and geese were monitored or recorded. Displacement distances of feeding birds at wintering sites ranged from 100–600 m, but preliminary evidence suggested that large-scale displacement also occurs, with fewer swans and geese returning to areas after wind farms were installed. Eight studies of flight behaviour all reported changes in flight-lines for swans or geese initially seen heading towards the turbines, at distances ranging from a few hundred metres to 5 km; 50–100% of individuals/groups avoided entering the area between turbines, but in some cases the sample sizes were small. Key knowledge gaps remain, including whether wind farm installation has a consistently negative effect on the number of birds returning to a wintering area; whether flight avoidance behaviour varies with weather conditions, wind farm size, habituation and the alignment of the turbines; provision of robust avoidance rate measures; and the extent to which serial wind farm development has a cumulative impact on specific swan and goose populations. It is therefore recommended that: 1) post-construction monitoring and dissemination of results be undertaken routinely, 2) the extent to which wind farms cause larger-scale displacement of birds from traditional wintering areas be assessed more rigorously, 3) further detailed studies of flight-lines in the vicinity of wind farms should be undertaken, both during migration and for birds commuting between feeding areas and the roost, to provide a more rigorous assessment of collision and avoidance rates for inclusion in collision risk models, and 4) the combination of collision mortality and habitat loss at all wind farms in the species’ range be analysed in determining whether they have a significant effect on the population.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{arnett_altering_2011,

title = {Altering turbine speed reduces bat mortality at wind-energy facilities},

author = {Edward B. Arnett and Manuela MP Huso and Michael R. Schirmacher and John P. Hayes},

url = {https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1890/100103},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1890/100103},

issn = {1540-9309},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

urldate = {2021-01-30},

journal = {Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment},

volume = {9},

number = {4},

pages = {209--214},

abstract = {Wind-turbine operations are associated with bat mortality worldwide; minimizing these fatalities is critically important to both bat conservation and public acceptance of wind-energy development. We tested the effectiveness of raising wind-turbine cut-in speed – defined as the lowest wind speed at which turbines generate power to the utility system, thereby reducing turbine operation during periods of low wind speeds – to decrease bat mortality at the Casselman Wind Project in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, over a 2-year period. Observed bat mortality at fully operational turbines was, on average, 5.4 and 3.6 times greater than mortality associated with curtailed (ie non-operating) turbines in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Relatively small changes to wind-turbine operation resulted in nightly reductions in bat mortality, ranging from 44% to 93%, with marginal annual power loss (? 1% of total annual output). Our findings suggest that increasing turbine cut-in speeds at wind facilities in areas of conservation concern during times when active bats may be at particular risk from turbines could mitigate this detrimental aspect of wind-energy generation.},

note = {_eprint: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1890/100103},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gonzalez_cantabrian_2011b,

title = {Cantabrian Capercaillie signs disappeared after a wind farm cons- truction},

author = {Manuel A González and Vicente Ena},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

pages = {10},

abstract = {González, M. A. & Ena, V. 2011. Cantabrian Capercaillie signs disappeared after a wind farm construction. Chioglossa, 3: 65-74. Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a grouse highly sensitive to human activities and declining throughout most of its European range. The Cantabrian subespecies Tetrao urogallus cantabricus is the most endangered and the only inhabiting caducifolious forests. Although many causes have been suggested as possible reasons for its alarming decline, no definite evidence supports any of them. Hence, the only effective measure so far is habitat conservation. In this sense, wind farms development is an emergent threat to this population. In a recently described Mediterranean habitat, we assessed Capercaillie occurrence before and after a wind farm construction in a wintering site. After construction Capercaillie presence signs decreased to zero and space use changed, likely due to human disturbances derived from the wind farm construction and maintenance. These changes in habitat use at a local scale and related negative effects on Capercaillie are discussed. As part of the precautionary principle conservation measures for this subespecies should avoid any wind farm within the current Cantabrian Capercaillie range while further research on Capercaillie and wind farms interactions should be urgently carried out.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{gonzalez_cantabrian_2011,

title = {Cantabrian Capercaillie signs disappeared after a wind farm construction},

author = {Manuel A González and Vicente Ena},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

pages = {10},

abstract = {González, M. A. & Ena, V. 2011. Cantabrian Capercaillie signs disappeared after a wind farm construction. Chioglossa, 3: 65-74. Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is a grouse highly sensitive to human activities and declining throughout most of its European range. The Cantabrian subespecies Tetrao urogallus cantabricus is the most endangered and the only inhabiting caducifolious forests. Although many causes have been suggested as possible reasons for its alarming decline, no definite evidence supports any of them. Hence, the only effective measure so far is habitat conservation. In this sense, wind farms development is an emergent threat to this population. In a recently described Mediterranean habitat, we assessed Capercaillie occurrence before and after a wind farm construction in a wintering site. After construction Capercaillie presence signs decreased to zero and space use changed, likely due to human disturbances derived from the wind farm construction and maintenance. These changes in habitat use at a local scale and related negative effects on Capercaillie are discussed. As part of the precautionary principle conservation measures for this subespecies should avoid any wind farm within the current Cantabrian Capercaillie range while further research on Capercaillie and wind farms interactions should be urgently carried out.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{lovich_effects_2011,

title = {Effects of wind energy production on growth, demography, and survivorship of a desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) population in southern California with comparisons to natural populations},

author = {Jeffrey E Lovich and Joshua R Ennen and Sheila Madrak and Kathie Meyer and Curtis Bjurlin and Terence R Arundel and Wendy Turner and Gayle M Groenendaal},

year  = {2011},

date = {2011-01-01},

journal = {Herpetological Conservation and Biology},

volume = {6},

number = {2},

pages = {161--174},

abstract = {We studied a Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) population at a large wind energy generation facility near Palm Springs, California over six field seasons from 1997 to 2010. We compared growth and demographic parameters to populations living in less disturbed areas; as well as populations of the closely-related and newly-described G. morafkai elsewhere in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona. We marked 69 individuals of all size classes and estimated a population size of 96 tortoises, or about 15.4/km2. Growth rates for males were lower than reported elsewhere, although maximum body size was larger. The smallest female with shelled eggs was 221 mm and males mature at over 200 mm. Mean male size was greater than that of females. The adult sex ratio was not significantly different from unity. Size frequency histograms were similar over time and when compared to most, but not all, G. morafkai populations in the Sonoran Desert. For a cohort of adult females, we estimated mortality at 8.4% annually due, in part, to site operations. This value was low in comparison to many other populations during the same time period. Other than possible differences in growth rate of males and the high survivorship of females, there appear to be few differences between this population and those in more natural areas. The high productivity of food plants at the site and its limited public access may contribute to the overall stability of the population. However, the effects of utility-scale renewable energy development on tortoises in other, less productive, areas are unknown. Additional research (especially controlled and replicated before and after studies) is urgently needed to address this deficiency because of forecasted expansion of utility-scale renewable energy development in the future.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{masden_cumulative_2010,

title = {Cumulative impact assessments and bird/wind farm interactions: Developing a conceptual framework},

author = {Elizabeth A. Masden and Anthony D. Fox and Robert W. Furness and Rhys Bullman and Daniel T. Haydon},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195925509000857},

doi = {10.1016/j.eiar.2009.05.002},

issn = {01959255},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

urldate = {2021-02-03},

journal = {Environmental Impact Assessment Review},

volume = {30},

number = {1},

pages = {1--7},

abstract = {The wind power industry has grown rapidly in the UK to meet EU targets of sourcing 20% of energy from renewable sources by 2020. Although wind power is a renewable energy source, there are environmental concerns over increasing numbers of wind farm proposals and associated cumulative impacts. Individually, a wind farm, or indeed any action, may have minor effects on the environment, but collectively these may be signi?cant, potentially greater than the sum of the individual parts acting alone. EU and UK legislation requires a cumulative impact assessment (CIA) as part of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). However, in the absence of detailed guidance and de?nitions, such assessments within EIA are rarely adequate, restricting the acquisition of basic knowledge about the cumulative impacts of wind farms on bird populations. Here we propose a conceptual framework to promote transparency in CIA through the explicit de?nition of impacts, actions and scales within an assessment. Our framework requires improved legislative guidance on the actions to include in assessments, and advice on the appropriate baselines against which to assess impacts. Cumulative impacts are currently considered on restricted scales (spatial and temporal) relating to individual development EIAs. We propose that bene?ts would be gained from elevating CIA to a strategic level, as a component of spatially explicit planning.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{tegou_environmental_2010,

title = {Environmental management framework for wind farm siting: Methodology and case study},

author = {Leda-Ioanna Tegou and Heracles Polatidis and Dias A. Haralambopoulos},

url = {https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479710001398},

doi = {10.1016/j.jenvman.2010.05.010},

issn = {03014797},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-11-01},

urldate = {2021-10-28},

journal = {Journal of Environmental Management},

volume = {91},

number = {11},

pages = {2134--2147},

abstract = {This paper develops an integrated framework to evaluate land suitability for wind farm siting that combines multi-criteria analysis (MCA) with geographical information systems (GIS); an application of the proposed framework for the island of Lesvos, Greece, is further illustrated. A set of environmental, economic, social, and technical constraints, based on recent Greek legislation, identi?es the potential sites for wind power installation. Furthermore, the area under consideration is evaluated by a variety of criteria, such as wind power potential, land cover type, electricity demand, visual impact, land value, and distance from the electricity grid. The pair-wise comparison method in the context of the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is applied to estimate the criteria weights in order to establish their relative importance in site evaluation. The overall suitability of the study region for wind farm siting is appraised through the weighted summation rule. Results showed that only a very small percentage of the total area of Lesvos could be suitable for wind farm installation, although favourable wind potential exists in many more areas of the island.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{noguera_impact_2010,

title = {Impact of terrestrial wind farms on diurnal raptors: developing a spatial vulnerability index and potential vulnerability maps},

author = {José C. Noguera and Irene Pérez and Eduardo Mínguez},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Ardeola},

volume = {57},

number = {1},

pages = {41--53},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{kerlinger_night_2010,

title = {Night Migrant Fatalities and Obstruction Lighting at Wind Turbines in North America},

author = {Paul Kerlinger and Joelle L. Gehring and Wallace P. Erickson and Richard Curry and Aaftab Jain and John Guarnaccia},

url = {https://bioone.org/journals/the-wilson-journal-of-ornithology/volume-122/issue-4/06-075.1/Night-Migrant-Fatalities-and-Obstruction-Lighting-at-Wind-Turbines-in/10.1676/06-075.1.full},

doi = {10.1676/06-075.1},

issn = {1559-4491, 1938-5447},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-12-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {The Wilson Journal of Ornithology},

volume = {122},

number = {4},

pages = {744--754},

abstract = {Avian collision fatality data from studies conducted at 30 wind farms across North America were examined to estimate how many night migrants collide with turbines and towers, and how aviation obstruction lighting relates to collision fatalities. Fatality rates, adjusted for scavenging and searcher efficiency, of night migrants at turbines 54 to 125 m in height ranged from textless1 bird/turbine/year to ?7 birds/turbine/year with higher rates recorded in eastern North America and lowest rates in the west. Multi-bird fatality events (defined as textgreater3 birds killed in 1 night at 1 turbine) were rare, recorded at textless0.02% (n = 4) of ?25,000 turbine searches. Lighting and weather conditions may have been causative factors in the four documented multi-bird fatality events, but flashing red lights (L-864, recommended by the Federal Aviation Administration [FAA]) were not involved, which is the most common obstruction lighting used at wind farms. A Wilcoxon signed-rank analysis of unadjusted fatality rates revealed no significant differences between fatality rates at turbines with FAA lights as opposed to turbines without lighting at the same wind farm.},

note = {Publisher: The Wilson Ornithological Society},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{martinez_potential_2010,

title = {Potential impact of wind farms on territories of large eagles in southeastern Spain},

author = {J. E. Martínez and J. F. Calvo and J. A. Martínez and I. Zuberogoitia and E. Cerezo and J. Manrique and G. J. Gómez and J. C. Nevado and M. Sánchez and R. Sánchez},

year  = {2010},

date = {2010-01-01},

journal = {Biodiversity and Conservation},

volume = {19},

number = {13},

pages = {3757--3767},

note = {Publisher: Springer},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{masden_barriers_2009,

title = {Barriers to movement: impacts of wind farms on migrating birds},

author = {Elizabeth A. Masden and Daniel T. Haydon and Anthony D. Fox and Robert W. Furness and Rhys Bullman and Mark Desholm},

url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp031},

doi = {10.1093/icesjms/fsp031},

issn = {1054-3139},

year  = {2009},

date = {2009-05-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {ICES Journal of Marine Science},

volume = {66},

number = {4},

pages = {746--753},

abstract = {Masden, E. A., Haydon, D. T., Fox, A. D., Furness, R. W., Bullman, R., and Desholm, M. 2009. Barriers to movement: impacts of wind farms on migrating birds. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66: 746–753. Advances in technology and engineering are enhancing the contribution that wind power makes to renewable energy generation. Wind farms, both operational and in planning, can be expected to impact negatively on wildlife populations, particularly birds. We propose a novel approach to assess the impacts through the energetic costs of avoidance behaviour for a long-distance, migratory seaduck. Flight trajectories were recorded using surveillance radar at a Danish offshore wind farm with emphasis placed on the 200 000+ migrating common eiders that pass through the area annually. Minimum distance to wind farm and curvature of trajectories were compared pre- and post-construction. Additional costs of the avoidance response were estimated using an avian energetic model. The curvature of eider trajectories was greatest post-construction and within 500 m of the wind farm, with a median curvature significantly greater than pre-construction, suggesting that the birds adjusted their flight paths in the presence of the wind farm. Additional distance travelled as a consequence of the wind farm's presence was ca. 500 m and trivial compared with the total costs of a migration episode of 1400 km. However, construction of further wind farms along the migration route could have cumulative effects on the population, especially when considered in combination with other human actions.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{telleria_potential_2009,

title = {Potential impacts of wind farms on migratory birds crossing Spain},

author = {José Luis Tellería},

year  = {2009},

date = {2009-01-01},

journal = {Bird Conservation International},

volume = {19},

number = {2},

pages = {131--136},

note = {Publisher: Cambridge University Press},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{baerwald_barotrauma_2008,

title = {Barotrauma is a significant cause of bat fatalities at wind turbines},

author = {Erin F. Baerwald and Genevieve H. DÁmours and Brandon J. Klug and Robert M. R. Barclay},

url = {https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(08)00751-3},

doi = {10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.029},

issn = {0960-9822},

year  = {2008},

date = {2008-08-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Current Biology},

volume = {18},

number = {16},

pages = {R695--R696},

note = {Publisher: Elsevier},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{arnett_patterns_2008,

title = {Patterns of Bat Fatalities at Wind Energy Facilities in North America},

author = {Edward B. Arnett and W. Kent Brown and Wallace P. Erickson and Jenny K. Fiedler and Brenda L. Hamilton and Travis H. Henry and Aaftab Jain and Gregory D. Johnson and Jessica Kerns and Rolf R. Koford and Charles P. Nicholson and Timothy J. O'Connell and Martin D. Piorkowski and Roger D. Tankersley},

url = {https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-wildlife-management/volume-72/issue-1/2007-221/Patterns-of-Bat-Fatalities-at-Wind-Energy-Facilities-in-North/10.2193/2007-221.full},

doi = {10.2193/2007-221},

issn = {0022-541X, 1937-2817},

year  = {2008},

date = {2008-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Journal of Wildlife Management},

volume = {72},

number = {1},

pages = {61--78},

abstract = {Wind has become one of the fastest growing sources of renewable energy worldwide, but widespread and often extensive fatalities of bats have increased concern regarding the impacts of wind energy development on bats and other wildlife. We synthesized available information on patterns of bat fatalities from a review of 21 postconstruction fatality studies conducted at 19 facilities in 5 United States regions and one Canadian province. Dominance of migratory, foliage- and tree-roosting lasiurine species (e.g., hoary bat [Lasiurus cinereus]) killed by turbines was consistent among studies. Bat fatalities, although highly variable and periodic, consistently peaked in late summer and fall, coinciding with migration of lasiurines and other species. A notable exception was documented fatalities of pregnant female Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) in May and June at a facility in Oklahoma, USA, and female silver-haired bats (Lasionycteris noctivagans) during spring in Tennessee, USA, and Alberta, Canada. Most studies reported that fatalities were distributed randomly across turbines at a site, although the highest number of fatalities was often found near the end of turbine strings. Two studies conducted simultaneously in the same region documented similar timing of fatalities between sites, which suggests broader patterns of collisions dictated by weather, prey abundance, or other factors. None of the studies found differences in bat fatalities between turbines equipped with lighting required by the Federal Aviation Administration and turbines that were unlit. All studies that addressed relationships between bat fatalities and weather patterns found that most bats were killed on nights with low wind speed (textless6 m/sec) and that fatalities increased immediately before and after passage of storm fronts. Weather patterns may be predictors of bat activity and fatality; thus, mitigation efforts that focus on these high-risk periods could reduce bat fatality substantially. We caution that estimates of bat fatality are conditioned by length of study and search interval and that they are biased in relation to how searcher efficiency, scavenger removal, and habitat differences were or were not accounted for. Our review will assist managers, biologists, and decision-makers with understanding unifying and unique patterns of bat fatality, biases, and limitations of existing efforts, and it will aid in designing future research needed to develop mitigation strategies for minimizing or eliminating bat fatality at wind facilities.},

note = {Publisher: The Wildlife Society},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{drewitt_assessing_2006,

title = {Assessing the impacts of wind farms on birds},

author = {Allan L. Drewitt and Rowena H. W. Langston},

url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00516.x},

doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00516.x},

issn = {1474-919X},

year  = {2006},

date = {2006-01-01},

urldate = {2021-03-05},

journal = {Ibis},

volume = {148},

number = {s1},

pages = {29--42},

abstract = {The potential effects of the proposed increase in wind energy developments on birds are explored using information from studies of existing wind farms. Evidence of the four main effects, collision, displacement due to disturbance, barrier effects and habitat loss, is presented and discussed. The consequences of such effects may be direct mortality or more subtle changes to condition and breeding success. The requirements for assessing the impact of future developments are summarized, including relevant environmental legislation and appropriate methods for undertaking baseline surveys and post-construction monitoring, with particular emphasis on the rapidly developing area of offshore wind farm assessments. Mitigation measures which have the potential to minimize impacts are also summarized. Finally, recent developments in the monitoring and research of wind energy impacts on birds are outlined and some areas for future work are described.},

note = {_eprint: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1474-919X.2006.00516.x},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{de_lucas_bird_2005,

title = {A Bird and Small Mammal BACI and IG Design Studies in a Wind Farm in Malpica (Spain)},

author = {Manuela Lucas and Guyonne F. E. Janss and Miguel Ferrer},

url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10531-004-0447-z},

doi = {10.1007/s10531-004-0447-z},

issn = {0960-3115, 1572-9710},

year  = {2005},

date = {2005-12-01},

urldate = {2021-03-27},

journal = {Biodiversity and Conservation},

volume = {14},

number = {13},

pages = {3289--3303},

abstract = {Wind farms have shown a spectacular growth during the last 10 years. As far as we know, this study is the ?rst where the relationship between wind power and birds and small mammals have been considered. Before–after control impact (BACI) study design to birds and Impact Gradient (IG) study design to small mammals to test the null hypothesis of no impact of a wind farm were used. In the BACI model Windfarm Area and a Reference Area were considered. Distance from turbines was considered in the IG model. Windfarm installations did not clearly a?ect bird and small mammal populations. Flight height of nesting and no nesting birds did not show a clear tendency. Small mammals populations su?ered high variations in numbers through times by intrinsic population factors. There are many practical problems of detection of human in?uence on abundances of populations so sampling in the long run can be suggested.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}